AnesthesiApp Drugs

Acetaminophen (IV)

Alfentanil

Standard DoseLoad: 8-100 mcg/kg IV; Infusion: 0.5-3 mcg/kg/min.

MechanismSynthetic opioid with an ultra-rapid onset (effect-site equilibration in 1.4 min) and short duration.

Alvimopan / Naloxegol

MechanismPeripherally acting mu-opioid receptor antagonists. Used to treat postop ileus and opioid-induced constipation without crossing the BBB to reverse analgesia.

Amisulpride

GI & Antiemetics

Standard DoseDose: 5–10 mg IV.

MechanismDopamine (D2) receptor antagonist antiemetic with minimal QT prolongation and high efficacy for PONV.

Aprepitant

GI & Antiemetics

Standard DoseOral / IV.

MechanismNeurokinin-1 (NK1) receptor antagonist; inhibits substance P.

Atracurium / Cisatracurium

NMBAs

Standard DoseIntubation: 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IV.

MechanismBenzylisoquinoline NMBAs. Undergo organ-independent Hofmann elimination, making them safe for renal/hepatic failure. Atracurium can cause dose-dependent histamine release.

Atropine / Scopolamine

Anticholinergics

Standard DoseIV, IM, Oral, or Transdermal (Scopolamine patch 1 mg).

MechanismCompetitively blocks binding by acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors.

Bupivacaine

Local Anesthetics

Standard DoseMax dose: 3 mg/kg.

MechanismHighly potent, long-acting amide LA. Carries a high risk of severe cardiotoxicity (refractory arrhythmias) if injected intravascularly due to slow dissociation from cardiac sodium channels.

Buprenorphine

Opioid Agonist-Antagonists

Standard DoseTransdermal / Transmucosal.

MechanismPartial mu agonist derived from thebaine; features high receptor affinity and long duration. Used in chronic pain and addiction recovery.

Butorphanol

Opioid Agonist-Antagonists

Standard DoseDose: 2-3 mg IM or intranasal.

MechanismKappa agonist and weak mu antagonist. Used for migraine treatment and preventing postop shivering.

Calabadion

Reversal Agents

Standard DoseInvestigational.

MechanismCucurbituril molecular container under investigation that encapsulates and reverses both steroidal and benzylisoquinoline NMBAs.

Capsaicin

Non-Opioid Analgesics / Adjuncts

Standard DoseWound infiltration.

MechanismTRPV1-receptor agonist. Depletes substance P to inhibit pain signaling and reduce opioid use.

Carbamazepine

Anticonvulsants

Standard DoseOral.

MechanismAnticonvulsant.

Carvedilol

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseOral.

MechanismBlocks beta-1, beta-2, and alpha-1 adrenoceptors.

Celecoxib

NSAIDs & Non-Opioids

Standard DoseOral.

MechanismSpecific inhibitor of the COX-2 enzyme.

Chloroprocaine

Local Anesthetics

Standard DoseMax dose: 12 mg/kg (800-1000 mg).

MechanismEster local anesthetic with the fastest onset and ultra-short duration due to rapid hydrolysis by plasma cholinesterase. Excellent safety profile for systemic toxicity.

Cimetidine / Ranitidine / Famotidine

GI & Antiemetics

Standard DoseDose: Varies by agent.

MechanismH2-receptor blockers that decrease gastric fluid volume and raise pH to reduce the risk of perioperative aspiration pneumonia.

Cisatracurium

NMBAs & Reversal

Standard Dose0.1–0.2 mg/kg

MechanismBenzylisoquinoline nondepolarizing NMBA.

Clonidine

Non-Opioid Analgesics / Adjuncts

Standard DoseIV: 1-3 mcg/kg; Epidural/Caudal: 1-2 mcg/kg.

MechanismAlpha-2 agonist. Decreases anesthetic and analgesic requirements, provides sedation, and markedly prolongs local anesthetic blocks.

Cocaine

Local Anesthetics

Standard DoseTopical: 4-10% (Max 3 mg/kg or 150 mg).

MechanismEster local anesthetic with unique built-in vasoconstriction properties. Inhibits NE reuptake; overdose causes severe arrhythmias, hypertension, and cardiac arrest.

Codeine / Tramadol

Opioid Agonists

Standard DoseTramadol: 1-2 mg/kg intrathecal or epidural.

MechanismProdrugs requiring CYP2D6 for activation (tramadol to O-desmethyltramadol). Tramadol inhibits NE/5-HT reuptake; carries risk of seizures and serotonin syndrome.

Desflurane

Inhalation Anesthetics

Standard DoseMAC: 6.6%.

MechanismVery low solubility allows ultra-rapid induction and emergence. Highly pungent; rapid concentration increases can cause airway irritation, tachycardia, and hypertension. Degraded by dry absorbent into carbon monoxide.

Dexamethasone

GI & Antiemetics

Standard DoseDose: 4 mg IV.

MechanismCorticosteroid given at induction to prevent PONV. Also used to prolong duration of peripheral nerve blocks.

Dexmedetomidine

IV Sedatives & Hypnotics

Standard DoseLoad: 1 mcg/kg over 10 min; Infusion: 0.2–1.4 mcg/kg/h.

MechanismHighly selective alpha-2 agonist. Provides cooperative sedation, anxiolysis, and analgesia without respiratory depression. May cause bradycardia and hypotension.

Diazepam

IV Sedatives & Hypnotics

Standard DoseInduction: 0.5–1 mg/kg IV.

MechanismHighly lipid-soluble benzodiazepine with a prolonged duration of action. Rarely used for induction today due to long context-sensitive half-time.

Dibucaine

Local Anesthetics

Standard DoseSpinal dose testing.

MechanismAmide local anesthetic that inhibits pseudocholinesterase; used to diagnose atypical pseudocholinesterase variants (Dibucaine number).

Dobutamine

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseInfusion: 2–20 mcg/kg/min.

MechanismSelective beta-1 > beta-2 agonist. Inodilator that increases cardiac output while mildly decreasing SVR. Increases myocardial oxygen demand.

Dopamine

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseInfusion: 1–20 mcg/kg/min.

MechanismDose-dependent agonist: DA1 (0.5-3 mcg/kg/min, renal vasodilation), Beta-1 (3-10 mcg, inotropy), and Alpha-1 (10-20 mcg, vasoconstriction).

Doxapram

Non-Opioid Analgesics / Adjuncts

Standard DoseBolus: 0.5–1 mg/kg IV.

MechanismPeripheral and CNS stimulant that activates carotid chemoreceptors to stimulate hypoxic drive and increase ventilation.

Droperidol

GI & Antiemetics

Standard Dose0.625-1.25 mg IV.

MechanismDopamine receptor antagonist.

Edrophonium

Reversal Agents

Standard DoseIntravenous.

MechanismInhibits acetylcholinesterase, indirectly increasing acetylcholine.

Enflurane

Inhalation Anesthetics

Standard DoseMAC: 1.63%.

MechanismHalogenated ether that decreases the threshold for seizures. Oxidized in the liver to inorganic fluoride ions, carrying a risk of nephrotoxicity.

Ephedrine

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseBolus: 2.5–10 mg IV (adults).

MechanismMixed direct and indirect sympathomimetic (releases NE). Increases HR, BP, and CO. Prone to tachyphylaxis.

Epinephrine

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseInfusion: 30–300 ng/kg/min.

MechanismDirect mixed alpha and beta agonist. Markedly increases HR, BP, contractility, and myocardial oxygen demand.

Esmolol

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseBolus: 0.3–1.5 mg/kg IV.

MechanismUltrashort-acting selective beta-1 antagonist. Rapidly blunts tachycardia and hypertension during intubation/emergence.

Etomidate

IV Sedatives & Hypnotics

Standard DoseInduction: 0.2–0.3 mg/kg IV.

MechanismImidazole derivative providing profound cardiovascular stability. Transiently inhibits cortisol and aldosterone synthesis (adrenal suppression) and frequently causes myoclonus.

Fenoldopam

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseInfusion: 0.01–1.6 mcg/kg/min.

MechanismSelective D1-receptor agonist. Reduces BP by decreasing PVR while maintaining or increasing renal blood flow and diuresis.

Fentanyl

Opioid Agonists

Standard DoseBolus: 1–5 mcg/kg IV (up to 50-100 mcg/kg for pure opioid anesthesia).

MechanismSynthetic phenylpiperidine opioid. Rapid onset and high lipid solubility. Provides intense analgesia without histamine release, maintaining better hemodynamic stability.

FORNAS

RESTRICTED

Flumazenil

Reversal Agents

Standard DoseDose: 0.2 mg/min IV (total 0.6–1.0 mg).

MechanismSpecific competitive antagonist for benzodiazepine receptors. Promptly reverses hypnotic effects but may require repeat dosing due to rapid hepatic clearance.

Fomepizole

Reversal Agents / Antidotes

Standard DoseIntravenous.

MechanismInhibits alcohol dehydrogenase.

Furosemide

Diuretics

Standard DoseIV bolus (e.g., 5-20 mg added to mannitol).

MechanismBlocks Na/K/Cl transporter in renal loop of Henle.

Gabapentin / Pregabalin

Non-Opioid Analgesics / Adjuncts

Standard DoseDose (Gabapentin): 600 mg preop, up to 1200 mg/day.

MechanismBlocks voltage-gated calcium channels, diminishing glutamate release. Effectively treats neuropathic pain and decreases perioperative opioid consumption.

Gantacurium

NMBAs

Standard DoseDose: 0.2 mg/kg IV.

MechanismInvestigational ultra-short acting chlorofumarate NMBA (duration 5-10 min). Reversible via chemical adduct formation with L-cysteine.

Glycopyrrolate

Anticholinergics

Standard DoseIV or IM.

MechanismCompetitively blocks binding by acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors.

Haloperidol

IV Sedatives & Antipsychotics

Standard DoseMild: 0.5-2 mg, Mod: 5-10 mg, Severe: 10-20 mg IV push. Maintenance: 1/4 loading dose q6h.

MechanismBlocks dopamine receptors in the central nervous system.

Halothane

Inhalation Anesthetics

Standard DoseMAC: 0.75%.

MechanismHalogenated alkane that depresses myocardial contractility and sensitizes the heart to catecholamine-induced arrhythmias. Causes the least CMR reduction but greatest increase in cerebral blood flow.

Hydralazine

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseTitrated IV.

MechanismDirect arteriolar vasodilator. Provides sustained blood pressure control but has a delayed onset and can cause reflex tachycardia.

Hydrocodone

Opioid Agonists

Standard DoseOral.

MechanismProdrug metabolized by CYP2D6 to hydromorphone and CYP3A4 to norhydrocodone.

Hydromorphone

Opioid Agonists

Standard DoseBolus: 0.01-0.02 mg/kg IV.

MechanismApproximately 5 times as potent as morphine with faster onset and less histamine release.

Isoflurane

Inhalation Anesthetics

Standard DoseMAC: 1.17%.

MechanismHalogenated ether. Profoundly decreases CMR (up to 50%) and produces vasodilation. Extremely physically stable without need for preservatives.

Isoproterenol

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseTitrated IV.

MechanismPure beta agonist. Increases heart rate and contractility while decreasing SVR and diastolic blood pressure.

Ketamine

IV Sedatives & Hypnotics

Standard DoseInduction: 1–2 mg/kg IV or 4–10 mg/kg IM.

MechanismNMDA receptor antagonist causing dissociative anesthesia. Increases BP, heart rate, and cardiac output via sympathetic stimulation. Potent bronchodilator.

Ketorolac

Non-Opioid Analgesics / Adjuncts

Standard DoseDose: 30 mg IV/IM every 6h.

MechanismParenteral NSAID inhibiting COX enzymes. Provides opioid-sparing analgesia but affects platelet aggregation; max use <5 days.

L-Cysteine

Reversal Agents

Standard DoseDose: 10–50 mg/kg IV.

MechanismEndogenous amino acid that rapidly inactivates investigational chlorofumarate NMBAs (like gantacurium) via adduct formation.

Labetalol

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseBolus: 5–20 mg IV.

MechanismMixed alpha and beta-adrenergic antagonist. Lowers blood pressure without inducing reflex tachycardia.

Levobupivacaine

Local Anesthetics

Standard Dose0.25-0.75%; Max dose: 150 mg.

MechanismBlocks voltage-gated sodium channels; Pure S-enantiomer.

Levosimendan

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseIntravenous.

MechanismCalcium-sensitizing agent; makes myofibrillar proteins more sensitive to intracellular calcium.

Lidocaine

Local Anesthetics

Standard DoseMax dose: 4.5 mg/kg (plain) or 7 mg/kg (with epi).

MechanismAmide local anesthetic; fast onset, medium duration. Serves as standard comparator. IV bolus (1.5 mg/kg) blunts airway reflexes and provides systemic analgesia.

Lorazepam

IV Sedatives & Hypnotics

Standard DosePremedication: 1-4 mg orally/IV.

MechanismBenzodiazepine with a slow onset and prolonged duration, making it useful for critical care sedation but poor for rapid induction.

Meperidine

Opioid Agonists

Standard DoseShivering: 10–25 mg IV.

MechanismSynthetic opioid with minor local anesthetic properties. Highly effective for postop shivering (kappa activity). Metabolite normeperidine causes neurotoxicity; interacting with MAOIs is potentially lethal.

Mepivacaine

Local Anesthetics

Standard DoseMax dose: 4.5 mg/kg (plain) or 7 mg/kg (with epi).

MechanismAmide local anesthetic with intermediate duration. Very limited intrinsic vasodilator activity.

Methadone

Opioid Agonists

Standard DoseChronic / Intraop IV Use.

MechanismSynthetic opioid agonist with excellent oral bioavailability and prolonged duration; effectively suppresses withdrawal.

Methoxyflurane

Inhalation Anesthetics

Standard DoseMAC: 0.16%.

MechanismHighly soluble methyl ethyl ether. Provides analgesia at subanesthetic doses, but causes hepatic toxicity and fluoride-induced nephrotoxicity.

Methylene Blue

Reversal Agents / Antidotes

Standard Dose1-2 mg/kg IV of 1% solution over 5 mins (max 7-8 mg/kg).

MechanismReduces methemoglobin (Fe3+) to hemoglobin (Fe2+).

Metoclopramide

GI & Antiemetics

Standard DoseDose: 10 mg IV/PO.

MechanismEnhances acetylcholine effects on intestinal smooth muscle, increasing lower esophageal sphincter tone and speeding gastric emptying.

Midazolam

IV Sedatives & Hypnotics

Standard DoseSedation: 0.05–0.1 mg/kg IV.

MechanismWater-soluble benzodiazepine. Provides anxiolysis and potent amnesia. Often used for preoperative medication or synergistic sedation.

Mivacurium

NMBAs

Standard DoseIntubation: 0.15–0.2 mg/kg IV.

MechanismShort-acting benzylisoquinoline NMBA (duration 20-30 min). Metabolized by pseudocholinesterase. Can cause histamine release.

Morphine

Opioid Agonists

Standard DoseBolus: 0.03–0.15 mg/kg IV; Intrathecal: 0.1-0.5 mg.

MechanismMu-opioid agonist. Slow onset due to low lipid solubility. Promotes histamine release. Active metabolites can accumulate in renal failure.

RESTRICTED

N-Acetylcysteine (NAC)

Reversal Agents / Antidotes

Standard Dose150mg/kg over 60m, 50mg/kg over 4h, 100mg/kg over 16h.

MechanismGlutathione analogue containing a sulfhydryl group that reduces and inactivates toxic metabolites.

Naloxone

Reversal Agents

Standard DoseBolus: 40–80 mcg IV (titrated for resp. depression); up to 1-4 mcg/kg.

MechanismPure competitive opioid receptor antagonist (highest affinity for mu). Rapidly reverses opioid-induced respiratory depression and analgesia.

Naltrexone

Reversal Agents

Standard DoseOral formulation.

MechanismOrally effective pure opioid antagonist with a long half-life (up to 24h), used for addiction maintenance.

Neostigmine

Reversal Agents

Standard DoseDose: 0.04–0.08 mg/kg IV (max 5 mg).

MechanismAcetylcholinesterase inhibitor. Reverses nondepolarizing NMBAs but prolongs succinylcholine. Must be given with glycopyrrolate or atropine to prevent muscarinic bradycardia.

Nicardipine / Clevidipine

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseNicardipine Infusion: 5-15 mg/h.

MechanismDihydropyridine calcium channel blockers. Pure arterial vasodilators that lower BP without affecting contractility or venous preload. Clevidipine is an ultrashort-acting lipid emulsion.

Nitroglycerin

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseInfusion: 0.5–5 mcg/kg/min.

MechanismNO-mediated venodilator. Decreases preload and relieves myocardial ischemia.

Nitroprusside

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseInfusion: Titrated.

MechanismNO-mediated mixed arterial and venous dilator. Rapid, potent, but carries a risk of cyanide/thiocyanate toxicity with prolonged use.

Nitrous Oxide (N2O)

Inhalation Anesthetics

Standard DoseMAC: 104%.

MechanismNMDA receptor antagonist. Poor solubility allows rapid equilibration; supports combustion despite being nonflammable. Produces analgesia but lacks significant skeletal muscle relaxation.

Nitrous Oxide (N2O)

Inhalation Anesthetics

Standard DoseMAC: 104%

MechanismNMDA receptor antagonist.

Norepinephrine

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseInfusion: 2–20 mcg/min (30-300 ng/kg/min).

MechanismDirect alpha-1 and mild beta-1 agonist. Produces intense arterial and venous vasoconstriction; agent of choice for refractory/septic shock.

Ondansetron / Granisetron

GI & Antiemetics

Standard DoseTitrated IV.

MechanismSelective 5-HT3 receptor antagonists that act peripherally and centrally to prevent/treat PONV.

Oxymorphone

Opioid Agonists

Standard DoseOral (immediate release).

MechanismMu-opioid receptor agonist.

Pancuronium

NMBAs

Standard DoseIntubation: 0.12 mg/kg IV.

MechanismLong-acting steroidal NMBA. Exhibits vagolytic effects (blocks muscarinic receptors in SA node), causing tachycardia and hypertension. Renal excretion.

Pentazocine / Nalbuphine

Opioid Agonist-Antagonists

Standard DoseNalbuphine: 10-30 mg IM/IV.

MechanismPartial agonists/antagonists (kappa agonists, mu antagonists). Provide analgesia with a ceiling effect on respiratory depression (e.g., at 30 mg for nalbuphine).

Phenoxybenzamine

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseOral.

MechanismIrreversible alpha antagonist used primarily for preoperative blood pressure control in pheochromocytoma before beta-blockade.

Phentolamine

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseBolus: 5-10 mg.

MechanismAlpha antagonist. Used for hypertensive episodes or locally for extravasation of vasoconstrictors.

Phenylephrine

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseBolus: 50–100 mcg IV.

MechanismPure alpha-1 agonist. Raises systemic vascular resistance and blood pressure, frequently causing reflex bradycardia.

Phenytoin / Fosphenytoin

Anticonvulsants

Standard Dose20 mg/kg IV load.

MechanismAnticonvulsant that modulates sodium channels.

Physostigmine

Reversal Agents

Standard DoseDose: 0.01–0.03 mg/kg IV.

MechanismTertiary amine cholinesterase inhibitor that crosses the BBB. Reverses central anticholinergic syndrome (e.g., scopolamine overdose) and treats postoperative shivering.

Prilocaine

Local Anesthetics

Standard DoseMax dose: 8 mg/kg.

MechanismAmide LA often used in EMLA cream. Metabolized to o-toluidine, which can induce dose-dependent methemoglobinemia.

Prochlorperazine

GI & Antiemetics

Standard DoseIV / Oral.

MechanismPhenothiazine affecting histaminergic, dopaminergic, and muscarinic receptors.

Propofol

IV Sedatives & Hypnotics

Standard DoseInduction: 1.5–2.5 mg/kg IV; Infusion: 25–100 mcg/kg/min.

MechanismGABA-A agonist. Causes rapid unconsciousness with smooth awakening. Decreases CMR, CBF, and ICP. Can cause significant hypotension due to vasodilation.

FORNAS

Pyridostigmine

Reversal Agents

Standard DoseDose: up to 0.25 mg/kg IV (max 20 mg).

MechanismAcetylcholinesterase inhibitor. Slower onset (10-15 min) and longer duration (>2 h) than neostigmine; coadministered with glycopyrrolate.

Remifentanil

Opioid Agonists

Standard DoseLoad: 0.5-1 mcg/kg IV; Infusion: 0.1-1 mcg/kg/min.

MechanismUltra-short acting opioid ester rapidly hydrolyzed by nonspecific plasma and tissue esterases. Allows profound analgesia without prolonged respiratory depression, but carries a risk of acute tolerance/hyperalgesia.

RESTRICTED

Remimazolam

IV Sedatives & Hypnotics

Standard DoseIntravenous.

MechanismHigh-affinity selective ligand for the benzodiazepine site of the GABAA receptor.

Rocuronium

NMBAs

Standard DoseIntubation: 0.45–1.2 mg/kg IV.

MechanismSteroidal nondepolarizing NMBA. Fast onset (60-90s) rivaling succinylcholine at higher doses. Dependent on biliary excretion; reversible with sugammadex.

FORNAS

Ropivacaine

Local Anesthetics

Standard DoseMax dose: 3 mg/kg.

MechanismLong-acting amide LA formulated as a pure S-enantiomer. Produces less motor block and carries a lower risk of cardiotoxicity/neurotoxicity than bupivacaine.

Sevoflurane

Inhalation Anesthetics

Standard DoseMAC: 1.80%.

MechanismLow solubility nonpungent ether, excellent for smooth inhalation inductions. Breaks down in presence of strong bases in CO2 absorbents to form Compound A.

Succinylcholine

NMBAs

Standard DoseIntubation: 1–1.5 mg/kg IV.

MechanismDepolarizing NMBA (ACh receptor agonist). Ultra-fast onset (30-60s) and short duration. Metabolized by pseudocholinesterase. Can cause life-threatening hyperkalemia in specific myopathies/burns.

FORNAS

Sufentanil

Opioid Agonists

Standard DoseBolus: 0.25–1.25 mcg/kg IV.

MechanismSynthetic opioid 5 to 10 times more potent than fentanyl.

Sugammadex

Reversal Agents

Standard DoseReversal Dose: 4–8 mg/kg IV.

MechanismModified gamma-cyclodextrin that encapsulates steroidal NMBAs (rocuronium > vecuronium) in a 1:1 ratio. Rapidly reverses both shallow and profound blockade.

Tetracaine / Benzocaine

Local Anesthetics

Standard DoseTetracaine: 20 mg (spinal); Benzocaine: Topical up to 20%.

MechanismEster local anesthetics. Tetracaine is highly potent and long-acting. Benzocaine exists un-ionized at physiologic pH; its topical use carries a high risk of methemoglobinemia.

Thiopental / Methohexital

IV Sedatives & Hypnotics

Standard DoseThiopental Induction: 3–5 mg/kg IV; Methohexital: 1.5 mg/kg IV.

MechanismBarbiturates binding GABA-A receptors. Potent cerebral vasoconstrictors that lower CBF, CMR, and ICP. Methohexital is commonly used for electroconvulsive therapy.

Tolvaptan / Conivaptan

Diuretics / Vasoactive

Standard DoseOral / IV.

MechanismBlock receptors for arginine vasopressin (ADH).

Valproic Acid

Anticonvulsants

Standard Dose20-40 mg/kg IV.

MechanismAnticonvulsant.

Vasopressin

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseBolus/Infusion.

MechanismNon-adrenergic vasoconstrictor. Increases BP in vasodilatory shock without cardiac stimulation; also useful in cardiac arrest algorithms.

Vecuronium

NMBAs

Standard DoseIntubation: 0.12 mg/kg IV.

MechanismSteroidal nondepolarizing NMBA. Devoid of autonomic/cardiovascular effects. Active 3-hydroxy metabolite can accumulate in renal failure or ICU infusions.

Verapamil / Diltiazem

CV & Vasoactive

Standard DoseIV / Oral.

MechanismNonselective block of L-type calcium channels.

Xenon

Inhalation Anesthetics

Standard DoseMAC: 63–71%.

MechanismInert noble gas and NMDA receptor antagonist. Nonexplosive and lacks environmental toxicity, providing rapid onset and emergence without cardiovascular depression.

Ziconotide

Non-Opioid Analgesics / Adjuncts

Standard DoseIntrathecal only.

MechanismSynthetic conotoxin (N-type voltage-sensitive calcium channel blocker) used for refractory chronic pain.

Zolpidem / Zaleplon / Eszopiclone

IV Sedatives & Hypnotics

Standard DoseOral.

MechanismBinds to the benzodiazepine site on the GABAA receptor.